तापमान

मानव शरीर के तापमान का विचरण

आदर्श गैस के तापमान का सैद्धान्तिक आधार अणुगति सिद्धान्त से मिलता है।

तापमान किसी वस्तु की ताप

की माप है। अर्थात्, तापमान से यह पता चलता है कि कोई वस्तु ठंढी है या गर्म।

उदाहरणार्थ, यदि किसी एक वस्तु का तापमान 20 डिग्री है और एक दूसरी वस्तु का 40 डिग्री, तो यह कहा जा सकता है कि दूसरी वस्तु प्रथम वस्तु की अपेक्षा गर्म है।

एक अन्य उदाहरण - यदि बंगलौर में, 4 अगस्त 2006 का औसत तापमान 29 डिग्री था और 5 अगस्त का तापमान 32 डिग्री; तो बंगलौर, 5 अगस्त 2006 को, 4 अगस्त 2006 की अपेक्षा अधिक गर्म था।

गैसों के अणुगति सिद्धान्त के विकास के आधार पर यह माना जाता है कि किसी वस्तु का ताप उसके सूक्ष्म कणों (इलेक्ट्रॉन, परमाणु तथा अणु) के यादृच्छ गति (रैण्डम मोशन) में निहित औसत गतिज ऊर्जा के समानुपाती होता है।

तापमान अत्यन्त महत्वपूर्ण भौतिक राशि है। प्राकृतिक विज्ञान के सभी महत्वपूर्ण क्षेत्रों (भौतिकी, रसायन, चिकित्सा, जीवविज्ञान, भूविज्ञान आदि) में इसका महत्व दृष्टिगोचर होता है। इसके अलावा दैनिक जीवन के सभी पहलुओं पर तापमान का महत्व है।

पैमाना

उपरोक्त उदाहरणों में तापमान को डिग्री में निरूपित किया गया है, जो कि वास्तव में कई पैमानों पर मापा जाता है - सेल्सियस, केल्विन, रोमर, फॉरेन्हाइट इत्यादि।

सेल्सियस

मुख्य लेख देखें - सेल्सियस

इसे सेन्टीग्रेड पैमाना भी कहते हैं। इस पैमाने के अनुसार पानी, सामान्य दबाव पर 0 डिग्री सेल्सियस पर जमता है और 100 डिग्री सेल्सियस पर उबलता है। यह पैमाना दैनिक वातावरणीय तथा अन्य कामों में काफी प्रयुक्त होता है।

केल्विन

मुख्य लेख देखें - केल्विन

इस पैमाने के अनुसार पानी, सामान्य दबाव पर 273.15 डिग्री केल्विन पर जमता है और 373.15 डिग्री केल्विन पर उबलता है। यह पैमाना वैज्ञानिक गणनाओं तथा अन्य कामों में काफी प्रयुक्त होता है। इसे वैज्ञानिक पैमाना भी कहा जाता है किसी भी वस्तु का 0 केल्विन ताप संभव नहीं है

फॉरेन्हाइट

मुख्य लेख देखें - फॉरेन्हाइट

इस पैमाने के अनुसार पानी, सामान्य दबाव पर 32 डिग्री फॉरेन्हाइट पर जमता है और 212 डिग्री फॉरेन्हाइट पर उबलता है। परम्परागत बुखार मापने के लिये प्रयुक्त थर्मॉमीटर में इसी पैमाने का प्रयोग होता है। यदि किसी व्यक्ति के शरीर का तापमान 98.4 डिग्री से ज्यादा हो जाता है तो वह ज्वर पीड़ित होता है। यह पैमाना दैनिक वातावरणीय तथा अन्य कामों में प्रयुक्त होता है।

रोमर

मुख्य लेख देखें - रोमर

इस पैमाने के अनुसार पानी, सामान्य दबाव पर 0 डिग्री रोमर पर जमता है और 80 डिग्री रोमर पर उबलता है। यह पैमाना अपेक्षाकृत कम प्रयुक्त होता है।

आपसी संबंध

यदि किसा एक ही वस्तु का तापमान, फॉरेन्हाइट पैमाने पर F हो, सेल्सियस पैमाने पर C, केल्विन पैमाने पर K और रोमर पैमाने पर R हो, तो इन पैमानों में इस तरह का संबंध होता है -

सेल्सियस और फॉरेन्हाइट

C/5 = (F-32)/9

c/5 = (f-32)/9

सेल्सियस और केल्विन

C/5 = K-273/5

सेल्सियस और रोमर

C/5 = R/4

	केल्विन	डिग्री सेल्सियस	डिग्री फॉरेनहाइट	रंकाइन	डिग्री र्यूमर	डिग्री रोमर	डिग्री न्यूटन	डिग्री डेलिस्ले
केल्विन	$K=K$	$K=C+273,15$	$K=(F+459,67)$ $\textstyle {\frac {5}{9}}$	$K=Ra$ $\textstyle {\frac {5}{9}}$	K = Re $\textstyle {\frac {5}{4}}$ + 273,15	K = (Ro - 7,5) $\textstyle {\frac {40}{21}}$ + 273,15	K = N $\textstyle {\frac {100}{33}}$ + 273,15	K = 373,15 - De $\textstyle {\frac {2}{3}}$
डिग्री सेल्सियस	$C=K-273,15$	$C=C$	C = (F - 32) $\textstyle {\frac {5}{9}}$	C = (Ra - 491,67) $\textstyle {\frac {5}{9}}$	C = Re $\textstyle {\frac {5}{4}}$	C = (Ro - 7,5) $\textstyle {\frac {40}{21}}$	C = N $\textstyle {\frac {100}{33}}$	C = 100 - De $\textstyle {\frac {2}{3}}$
डिग्री फॉरेनहाइट	$F=K$ $\textstyle {\frac {9}{5}}$ - 459,67	F = C $\textstyle {\frac {9}{5}}$ + 32	$F=F$	$F=Ra-459,67$	F = Re $\textstyle {\frac {9}{4}}$ + 32	F = (Ro - 7,5) $\textstyle {\frac {24}{7}}$ + 32	F = N $\textstyle {\frac {60}{11}}$ + 32	F = 121 - De $\textstyle {\frac {6}{5}}$
रैंकाइन	$Ra=K$ $\textstyle {\frac {9}{5}}$	Ra = (C + 273,15) $\textstyle {\frac {9}{5}}$	$Ra=F+459,67$	$Ra=Ra$	Ra = Re $\textstyle {\frac {9}{4}}$ + 491,67	Ra = (Ro - 7,5) $\textstyle {\frac {24}{7}}$ + 491,67	Ra = N $\textstyle {\frac {60}{11}}$ + 491,67	Ra = 171,67 - De $\textstyle {\frac {6}{5}}$
डिग्री र्यूमर	$Re=(K-273,15)$ $\textstyle {\frac {4}{5}}$	Re = C $\textstyle {\frac {4}{5}}$	Re = (F - 32) $\textstyle {\frac {4}{9}}$	Re = (Ra - 491,67) $\textstyle {\frac {4}{9}}$	$Re=Re$	Re = (Ro - 7,5) $\textstyle {\frac {32}{21}}$	Re = N $\textstyle {\frac {80}{33}}$	Re = 80 - De $\textstyle {\frac {5}{6}}$
डिग्री रोमर	Ro =(K - 273,15) $\textstyle {\frac {21}{40}}$ +7,5	Ro = C $\textstyle {\frac {21}{40}}$ +7,5	Ro = (F - 32) $\textstyle {\frac {7}{24}}$ +7,5	Ro = Ra - 491,67 $\textstyle {\frac {7}{24}}$ +7,5	Ro = Re $\textstyle {\frac {21}{32}}$ +7,5	$Ro=Ro$	Ro = N $\textstyle {\frac {35}{22}}$ +7,5	Ro = 60 - De $\textstyle {\frac {7}{20}}$
डिग्री न्यूटन	N = (K - 273,15) $\textstyle {\frac {33}{100}}$	N = C $\textstyle {\frac {33}{100}}$	N = (F - 32) $\textstyle {\frac {11}{60}}$	N = (Ra - 491,67) $\textstyle {\frac {11}{60}}$	N = Re $\textstyle {\frac {33}{80}}$	N = (Ro - 7,5) $\textstyle {\frac {22}{35}}$	$N=N$	N = 33 - De $\textstyle {\frac {11}{50}}$
डिग्री डेलिस्ले	De = (373,15 - K) $\textstyle {\frac {3}{2}}$	De = (100 - C) $\textstyle {\frac {3}{2}}$	De = (121 - F) $\textstyle {\frac {5}{6}}$	De = (580,67 - Ra) $\textstyle {\frac {5}{6}}$	De = (80 - Re) $\textstyle {\frac {6}{5}}$	De = (60 - Ro) $\textstyle {\frac {20}{7}}$	De = (33 - N) $\textstyle {\frac {50}{11}}$	$De=De$

उपरोक्त सारणी को निम्नलिखित सरल सूत्र के रूप में भी दिया जा सकता है-

{\frac {^{\circ }C}{5}}={\frac {^{\circ }F-32}{9}}={\frac {R-491.67}{9}}={\frac {K-273.15}{5}}

कुछ महत्वपूर्ण तापमान

	तापमान		कृष्णिका विकिरण का शिखर उत्सर्जकता तरंगदैर्घ्य^[1]
	केल्विन	सेल्सियस	कृष्णिका विकिरण का शिखर उत्सर्जकता तरंगदैर्घ्य^[1]
परम शून्य (परिभाषा के अनुसार)	0 K	−273.15 °C	cannot be defined
अब तक प्राप्त सबसे ठण्डा तापमान^[2]	100 pK	−273.149999999900 °C	29,000 km
Coldest बोस-आइन्सटाइन कन्डेन्सेट^[3]	450 pK	−273.14999999955 °C	6,400 km
१ मिलीकेल्विन (precisely by definition)	0.001 K	−273.149 °C	2.89777 m (radio, FM band)^[4]
Cosmic microwave background (2013 measurement)	2.7260 K	−270.424 °C	0.00106301 m (millimeter-wavelength microwave)
Water triple point (precisely by definition)	273.16 K	0.01 °C	10,608.3 nm (long-wavelength IR)
Water boiling point^[A]	373.1339 K	99.9839 °C	7,766.03 nm (mid-wavelength IR)
Incandescent lamp^[B]	2500 K	≈2,200 °C	1,160 nm (near infrared)^[C]
Sun's visible surface^[D]^[5]	5,778 K	5,505 °C	501.5 nm (green-blue light)
Lightning bolt channel^[E]	28 kK	28,000 °C	100 nm (far ultraviolet light)
Sun's core^[E]	16 MK	16 million °C	0.18 nm (X-rays)
Thermonuclear weapon (peak temperature)^[E]^[6]	350 MK	350 million °C	8.3×10⁻³ nm (gamma rays)
Sandia National Labs' Z machine^[E]^[7]	2 GK	2 billion °C	1.4×10⁻³ nm (gamma rays)^[F]
Core of a high-mass star on its last day^[E]^[8]	3 GK	3 billion °C	1×10⁻³ nm (gamma rays)
Merging binary neutron star system^[E]^[9]	350 GK	350 billion °C	8×10⁻⁶ nm (gamma rays)
Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider^[E]^[10]	1 TK	1 trillion °C	3×10⁻⁶ nm (gamma rays)
CERN's proton vs nucleus collisions^[E]^[11]	10 TK	10 trillion °C	3×10⁻⁷ nm (gamma rays)
Universe 5.391×10⁻⁴⁴ s after the Big Bang^[E]	1.417×10³² K	1.417×10³² °C	1.616×10⁻²⁷ nm (Planck length)^[12]

^A For Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water at one standard atmosphere (101.325 kPa) when calibrated strictly per the two-point definition of thermodynamic temperature.
^B The 2500 K value is approximate. The 273.15 K difference between K and °C is rounded to 300 K to avoid false precision in the Celsius value.
^C For a true black-body (which tungsten filaments are not). Tungsten filament emissivity is greater at shorter wavelengths, which makes them appear whiter.
^D Effective photosphere temperature. The 273.15 K difference between K and °C is rounded to 273 K to avoid false precision in the Celsius value.
^E The 273.15 K difference between K and °C is within the precision of these values.
^F For a true black-body (which the plasma was not). The Z machine's dominant emission originated from 40 MK electrons (soft x-ray emissions) within the plasma.

सन्दर्भ

↑ The cited emission wavelengths are for black bodies in equilibrium. CODATA 2006 recommended value of 2.8977685(51)×१०⁻³ m K used for Wien displacement law constant b.
↑ "World record in low temperatures". मूल से 18 जून 2009 को पुरालेखित. अभिगमन तिथि 2009-05-05.
↑ A temperature of 450 ±80 pK in a Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) of sodium atoms was achieved in 2003 by researchers at MIT. Citation: Cooling Bose–Einstein Condensates Below 500 Picokelvin, A. E. Leanhardt et al., Science 301, 12 Sept. 2003, p. 1515. It's noteworthy that this record's peak emittance black-body wavelength of 6,400 kilometers is roughly the radius of Earth.
↑ The peak emittance wavelength of 2.89777 m is a frequency of 103.456 MHz
↑ Measurement was made in 2002 and has an uncertainty of ±3 kelvin. A 1989 measurement Archived 2010-02-11 at the वेबैक मशीन produced a value of 5,777.0±2.5 K. Citation: Overview of the Sun Archived 2008-03-07 at the वेबैक मशीन (Chapter 1 lecture notes on Solar Physics by Division of Theoretical Physics, Dept. of Physical Sciences, University of Helsinki).
↑ The 350 MK value is the maximum peak fusion fuel temperature in a thermonuclear weapon of the Teller–Ulam configuration (commonly known as a hydrogen bomb). Peak temperatures in Gadget-style fission bomb cores (commonly known as an atomic bomb) are in the range of 50 to 100 MK. Citation: Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions, 3.2.5 Matter At High Temperatures. Link to relevant Web page. Archived 2017-05-21 at the वेबैक मशीन All referenced data was compiled from publicly available sources.
↑ Peak temperature for a bulk quantity of matter was achieved by a pulsed-power machine used in fusion physics experiments. The term bulk quantity draws a distinction from collisions in particle accelerators wherein high temperature applies only to the debris from two subatomic particles or nuclei at any given instant. The >2 GK temperature was achieved over a period of about ten nanoseconds during shot Z1137. In fact, the iron and manganese ions in the plasma averaged 3.58±0.41 GK (309±35 keV) for 3 ns (ns 112 through 115). Ion Viscous Heating in a Magnetohydrodynamically Unstable Z Pinch at Over 2×१०⁹ Kelvin Archived 2012-04-19 at the वेबैक मशीन, M. G. Haines et al., Physical Review Letters 96 (2006) 075003. Link to Sandia's news release. Archived 2010-05-30 at the वेबैक मशीन
↑ Core temperature of a high–mass (>8–11 solar masses) star after it leaves the main sequence on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and begins the alpha process (which lasts one day) of fusing silicon–28 into heavier elements in the following steps: sulfur–32 → argon–36 → calcium–40 → titanium–44 → chromium–48 → iron–52 → nickel–56. Within minutes of finishing the sequence, the star explodes as a Type II supernova. Citation: Stellar Evolution: The Life and Death of Our Luminous Neighbors (by Arthur Holland and Mark Williams of the University of Michigan). Link to Web site Archived 2009-01-16 at the वेबैक मशीन. More informative links can be found here "Archived copy". मूल से 2013-04-11 को पुरालेखित. अभिगमन तिथि 2016-02-08.सीएस1 रखरखाव: Archived copy as title (link), and here "Archived copy". मूल से 2011-08-14 को पुरालेखित. अभिगमन तिथि 2016-02-08.सीएस1 रखरखाव: Archived copy as title (link), and a concise treatise on stars by NASA is here [1] Archived 2017-07-18 at the वेबैक मशीन. "Archived copy". मूल से January 16, 2009 को पुरालेखित. अभिगमन तिथि 2010-10-12. नामालूम प्राचल |deadurl= की उपेक्षा की गयी (मदद)सीएस1 रखरखाव: Archived copy as title (link)
↑ Based on a computer model that predicted a peak internal temperature of 30 MeV (350 GK) during the merger of a binary neutron star system (which produces a gamma–ray burst). The neutron stars in the model were 1.2 and 1.6 solar masses respectively, were roughly 20 km in diameter, and were orbiting around their barycenter (common center of mass) at about 390 Hz during the last several milliseconds before they completely merged. The 350 GK portion was a small volume located at the pair's developing common core and varied from roughly 1 to 7 km across over a time span of around 5 ms. Imagine two city-sized objects of unimaginable density orbiting each other at the same frequency as the G4 musical note (the 28th white key on a piano). It's also noteworthy that at 350 GK, the average neutron has a vibrational speed of 30% the speed of light and a relativistic mass (m) 5% greater than its rest mass (m₀). Torus Formation in Neutron Star Mergers and Well-Localized Short Gamma-Ray Bursts Archived 2014-08-23 at the वेबैक मशीन, R. Oechslin et al. of Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics. Archived 2005-04-03 at the वेबैक मशीन, arXiv:astro-ph/0507099 v2, 22 Feb. 2006. An html summary Archived 2018-01-10 at the वेबैक मशीन.
↑ Results of research by Stefan Bathe using the PHENIX Archived 2008-11-20 at the वेबैक मशीन detector on the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider Archived 2016-03-03 at the वेबैक मशीन at Brookhaven National Laboratory Archived 2012-06-24 at the वेबैक मशीन in Upton, New York, U.S.A. Bathe has studied gold-gold, deuteron-gold, and proton-proton collisions to test the theory of quantum chromodynamics, the theory of the strong force that holds atomic nuclei together. Link to news release. Archived 2017-12-30 at the वेबैक मशीन
↑ How do physicists study particles? Archived 2007-10-11 at the वेबैक मशीन by CERN Archived 2013-02-11 at the वेबैक मशीन.
↑ The Planck frequency equals 1.85487(14)×१०⁴³ Hz (which is the reciprocal of one Planck time). Photons at the Planck frequency have a wavelength of one Planck length. The Planck temperature of 1.41679(11)×१०³² K equates to a calculated b /T = λ_max wavelength of 2.04531(16)×१०⁻²⁶ nm. However, the actual peak emittance wavelength quantizes to the Planck length of 1.61624(12)×१०⁻²⁶ nm.

इन्हें भी देखें

[1] The cited emission wavelengths are for black bodies in equilibrium. CODATA 2006 recommended value of 2.8977685(51)×१०⁻³ m K used for Wien displacement law constant b.

[ltl-2] "World record in low temperatures". मूल से 18 जून 2009 को पुरालेखित. अभिगमन तिथि 2009-05-05.

[recordcold-3] A temperature of 450 ±80 pK in a Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) of sodium atoms was achieved in 2003 by researchers at MIT. Citation: Cooling Bose–Einstein Condensates Below 500 Picokelvin, A. E. Leanhardt et al., Science 301, 12 Sept. 2003, p. 1515. It's noteworthy that this record's peak emittance black-body wavelength of 6,400 kilometers is roughly the radius of Earth.

[4] The peak emittance wavelength of 2.89777 m is a frequency of 103.456 MHz

[5] Measurement was made in 2002 and has an uncertainty of ±3 kelvin. A 1989 measurement Archived 2010-02-11 at the वेबैक मशीन produced a value of 5,777.0±2.5 K. Citation: Overview of the Sun Archived 2008-03-07 at the वेबैक मशीन (Chapter 1 lecture notes on Solar Physics by Division of Theoretical Physics, Dept. of Physical Sciences, University of Helsinki).

[6] The 350 MK value is the maximum peak fusion fuel temperature in a thermonuclear weapon of the Teller–Ulam configuration (commonly known as a hydrogen bomb). Peak temperatures in Gadget-style fission bomb cores (commonly known as an atomic bomb) are in the range of 50 to 100 MK. Citation: Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions, 3.2.5 Matter At High Temperatures. Link to relevant Web page. Archived 2017-05-21 at the वेबैक मशीन All referenced data was compiled from publicly available sources.

[7] Peak temperature for a bulk quantity of matter was achieved by a pulsed-power machine used in fusion physics experiments. The term bulk quantity draws a distinction from collisions in particle accelerators wherein high temperature applies only to the debris from two subatomic particles or nuclei at any given instant. The >2 GK temperature was achieved over a period of about ten nanoseconds during shot Z1137. In fact, the iron and manganese ions in the plasma averaged 3.58±0.41 GK (309±35 keV) for 3 ns (ns 112 through 115). Ion Viscous Heating in a Magnetohydrodynamically Unstable Z Pinch at Over 2×१०⁹ Kelvin Archived 2012-04-19 at the वेबैक मशीन, M. G. Haines et al., Physical Review Letters 96 (2006) 075003. Link to Sandia's news release. Archived 2010-05-30 at the वेबैक मशीन

[8] Core temperature of a high–mass (>8–11 solar masses) star after it leaves the main sequence on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and begins the alpha process (which lasts one day) of fusing silicon–28 into heavier elements in the following steps: sulfur–32 → argon–36 → calcium–40 → titanium–44 → chromium–48 → iron–52 → nickel–56. Within minutes of finishing the sequence, the star explodes as a Type II supernova. Citation: Stellar Evolution: The Life and Death of Our Luminous Neighbors (by Arthur Holland and Mark Williams of the University of Michigan). Link to Web site Archived 2009-01-16 at the वेबैक मशीन. More informative links can be found here "Archived copy". मूल से 2013-04-11 को पुरालेखित. अभिगमन तिथि 2016-02-08.सीएस1 रखरखाव: Archived copy as title (link), and here "Archived copy". मूल से 2011-08-14 को पुरालेखित. अभिगमन तिथि 2016-02-08.सीएस1 रखरखाव: Archived copy as title (link), and a concise treatise on stars by NASA is here [1] Archived 2017-07-18 at the वेबैक मशीन. "Archived copy". मूल से January 16, 2009 को पुरालेखित. अभिगमन तिथि 2010-10-12. नामालूम प्राचल |deadurl= की उपेक्षा की गयी (मदद)सीएस1 रखरखाव: Archived copy as title (link)

[9] Based on a computer model that predicted a peak internal temperature of 30 MeV (350 GK) during the merger of a binary neutron star system (which produces a gamma–ray burst). The neutron stars in the model were 1.2 and 1.6 solar masses respectively, were roughly 20 km in diameter, and were orbiting around their barycenter (common center of mass) at about 390 Hz during the last several milliseconds before they completely merged. The 350 GK portion was a small volume located at the pair's developing common core and varied from roughly 1 to 7 km across over a time span of around 5 ms. Imagine two city-sized objects of unimaginable density orbiting each other at the same frequency as the G4 musical note (the 28th white key on a piano). It's also noteworthy that at 350 GK, the average neutron has a vibrational speed of 30% the speed of light and a relativistic mass (m) 5% greater than its rest mass (m₀). Torus Formation in Neutron Star Mergers and Well-Localized Short Gamma-Ray Bursts Archived 2014-08-23 at the वेबैक मशीन, R. Oechslin et al. of Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics. Archived 2005-04-03 at the वेबैक मशीन, arXiv:astro-ph/0507099 v2, 22 Feb. 2006. An html summary Archived 2018-01-10 at the वेबैक मशीन.

[10] Results of research by Stefan Bathe using the PHENIX Archived 2008-11-20 at the वेबैक मशीन detector on the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider Archived 2016-03-03 at the वेबैक मशीन at Brookhaven National Laboratory Archived 2012-06-24 at the वेबैक मशीन in Upton, New York, U.S.A. Bathe has studied gold-gold, deuteron-gold, and proton-proton collisions to test the theory of quantum chromodynamics, the theory of the strong force that holds atomic nuclei together. Link to news release. Archived 2017-12-30 at the वेबैक मशीन

[11] How do physicists study particles? Archived 2007-10-11 at the वेबैक मशीन by CERN Archived 2013-02-11 at the वेबैक मशीन.

[12] The Planck frequency equals 1.85487(14)×१०⁴³ Hz (which is the reciprocal of one Planck time). Photons at the Planck frequency have a wavelength of one Planck length. The Planck temperature of 1.41679(11)×१०³² K equates to a calculated b /T = λ_max wavelength of 2.04531(16)×१०⁻²⁶ nm. However, the actual peak emittance wavelength quantizes to the Planck length of 1.61624(12)×१०⁻²⁶ nm.

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